Shaka Zulu ( 1816 - 1828): A Legendary Warrior

Shaka Zulu, reigning from 1816-1828, transformed the Zulu tribe into the powerful Zulu Kingdom in South Africa. He introduced military innovations and centralized power, expanding territories significantly. His reign, marked by both consolidation and conflict, left a lasting legacy.

Artist impression of Shaka Zulu in Digital Art form.

In the early stages of the 19th Century, Shaka Zulu set the foundation for the Zulu Empire and sparked a drastic shift in the dynamics of warfare across Southern Africa. Shaka’s journey commenced in 1787, born to Senzangakhona, a minor chieftain of a Zulu-speaking tribe, and Nandi, the progeny of Chief Mbhengi from a rival tribe. Shaka’s birth was perceived as a transgression due to the cross-tribal nature of his parentage. Amidst escalating pressure from tribal figureheads, his parents reluctantly parted ways, leading to the exile of young Shaka and his mother from their clan. Returning to her Elangeni tribe, Nandi found herself an outcast and alienated. As a direct consequence, Shaka endured an early life filled with hardship, torment, and neglect.

As a king, Shaka refined the ‘ibutho’ military structure and, with backing from the Mthethwa Paramountcy, built a network of alliances with smaller neighbouring entities, fortifying against the Ndwandwe raids from the north. The Zulu’s initial tactics were more inclined towards defensive moves, as King Shaka favoured diplomatic pressure, supplemented by the occasional strategic elimination of adversaries. His societal reforms were constructed atop existing infrastructures. Although his inclination was towards social and propagandistic political methods, he also led his forces into several battles.

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King Shaka’s reign was concurrent with the beginning of the Mfecane/Difaqane (translated as ‘Upheaval’ or ‘Crushing’), a violent period of warfare and turmoil in southern Africa from 1815 to roughly 1840 that led to widespread desolation and depopulation in the region. His role in the Mfecane/Difaqane remains a contentious issue in history. Ultimately, his reign met a brutal end, assassinated at the hands of his half-brothers, King Dingane and Prince Mhlangana.

Early Life

As Shaka matured, he harboured deep-seated resentment towards the Elangeni clan for the torment he had endured in his younger years. Upon reaching the precipice of manhood, he severed ties with the Elangeni, finding kinship instead with the Mthethwa clan. For six formidable years, he proved his mettle as a warrior under the watchful eye of Dingiswayo, the Mthethwa’s revered chief. Shaka’s courage and perseverance struck a chord with Dingiswayo, leaving a lasting impression. His allegiance to the Mthethwa remained unwavering until the sombre news of his father, Senzangakhona’s demise, reached him in 1816.

In the dawn of his leadership, Shaka lacked the authority and reputation to rally anything more than the smallest factions.

Conflict with Zwide and Expansion of Power

As Shaka’s stature grew within his community, he found it easier to propagate his philosophies. Coming from a martial background, Shaka imparted to the Zulus that rapid ascendancy to power could be achieved through subjugation and control of other tribes. His ideologies left a profound imprint on the Zulu social mindset, birthing a tribe with a warrior-like disposition, which Shaka harnessed to his benefit.

Shaka’s supremacy was primarily underpinned by his formidable military prowess, annihilating rivals and absorbing the remnants into his own forces. This he seamlessly melded with diplomacy and patronage, integrating friendly chieftains such as Zihlandlo of the Mkhize, Jobe of the Sithole, and Mathubane of the Thuli. These tribes capitulated to Shaka’s subtle strategies of reward and patronage rather than combat. The ruling Qwabe even manipulated their ancestral narratives to suggest a close historical kinship with the Zulu, fostering a stronger sense of unity, though sporadic civil wars bore witness to its incompleteness.

When Shaka’s younger half-brother Sigujana ascended to the Zulu chieftaincy, his reign was short-lived. Dingiswayo, keen to consolidate his power, furnished Shaka with a regiment, enabling him to dethrone Sigujana in a relatively bloodless coup that found acceptance within the Zulu community. Shaka, thus, seized the Zulu chiefdom, but he remained subordinate to the Mthethwa Paramountcy. His claim to his father’s chieftaincy was facilitated by military support from Dingiswayo.

Even after assuming leadership of the Zulu, Shaka continued to acknowledge Dingiswayo and the larger Mthethwa clan as his overlords until Dingiswayo’s demise in battle a year later at the hands of Zwide, the formidable chief of the Ndwandwe nation. Indeed, the core Zulu had to make strategic retreats from several aggressive Ndwandwe incursions.

Shaka managed to forge an alliance with the leaderless Mthethwa and solidify his standing amongst the Qwabe following the easy overthrow of Phakathwayo. With the support of Qwabe, Hlubi, and Mkhize, Shaka mustered a force capable of resisting the Nxumalo clan’s Ndwandwe. Drawing on his experiences with the Mthethwa, he metamorphosed his clan’s ceremonial military into a robust army poised for both defence and attack.

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Upon Dingiswayo’s murder by Zwide, Shaka vowed vengeance. Zwide narrowly escaped Shaka on one occasion, the details of which remain murky. Historian Donald Morris posits that Shaka’s first significant engagement against Zwide was at the Battle of Gqokli Hill, on the Mfolozi River. Shaka’s troops held a solid position on the hill crest. Their adversaries’ frontal assault failed, and Shaka ensured victory by sending his reserve forces in a sweeping attack on the enemy’s rear. Despite heavy casualties, the efficacy of Shaka’s innovative warfare was evident.

Shaka executed a grisly revenge on Zwide’s mother, Ntombazi, a sangoma, by locking her in a house with jackals or hyenas that devoured her, following which Shaka incinerated the house. Undeterred by this act of revenge, Shaka relentlessly pursued Zwide. Their final confrontation took place near Phongola around 1825. Shaka emerged victorious from the clash, despite suffering heavy casualties, including his chief military commander, Umgobhozi Ovela Entabeni.

Shaka embarked on a monumental journey to mould the diverse Zulu-speaking clans into a formidable empire. As he assimilated rival factions, the Zulu Empire swelled to an estimated population of 250,000, emerging as the largest entity in Southern Africa’s chronicles. In 1827, standing at the pinnacle of his might, Shaka could summon a staggering force of over 50,000 warriors to the battlefield and commanded the majority of the territory now known as the contemporary state of South Africa.

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On rare occasions, Shaka permitted Europeans entry into Zulu territories. In the mid-1820s, after an assassination attempt by a hidden rival tribesman, Shaka found himself in need of medical attention. It was Henry Francis Fynn who tended to the injured king, saving his life (as per the account of Nathaniel Isaacs). In an expression of gratitude, Shaka extended the rights of dwelling and trading to European settlers within the Zulu kingdom.

Shaka bore witness to various demonstrations of European technology and intellect but stood resolute in his belief that the Zulu methods were superior to those of the foreigners. Despite the exposure to foreign cultures, Shaka’s pride and faith in the Zulu way of life remained unscathed.

Revolution in Society and Warfare

Some traditional chronicles cast doubt upon the innovative military and societal strategies typically attributed to Shaka, outright dismissing them or attributing them to European influences. However, contemporary scholars suggest these interpretations fall short. They argue that the Zulu culture, with its array of tribes and clans, was replete with practices that Shaka could have adapted to fulfil his ambitions for raiding, conquest, and dominance.

Weaponry Transformation

Shaka is often credited with expressing discontent with the long, throwing assegai, introducing a new variant known as the iklwa: a short stabbing spear with a long, sword-like spearhead. Though it’s not confirmed that Shaka actually invented the iklwa, he commissioned Nzama to manufacture it. Later, they had a fallout over Shaka’s refusal to pay for the spears. As per Zulu scholar John Laband, Shaka demanded his warriors train with the weapon, lending them a “chilling advantage over adversaries still adhering to the traditional practice of throwing their spears and evading close combat.” The throwing spear remained in use, serving as an initial ranged weapon prior to hand-to-hand combat using the shorter, stabbing spear.

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Shaka is also suspected of introducing a larger, heavier version of the Nguni shield. Allegedly, he trained his warriors to use the left side of the shield to hook the enemy’s shield to the right, leaving the enemy’s ribs vulnerable to a fatal spear stab. During Shaka’s reign, these cowhide shields were supplied by the king and remained his property. Different coloured shields distinguished different amabutho within Shaka’s army, with some bearing black shields, others white shields with black spots, and others brown or pure white shields.

Army Mobility

Various military accounts, like The Washing of the Spears, Like Lions They Fought, and Anatomy of the Zulu Army, claim that Shaka ordered his warriors to discard sandals to toughen their feet. Implementation was harsh; dissenters were simply executed. Shaka frequently drilled his troops in forced marches, covering over 80 kilometres a day in a fast trot across harsh, rocky terrains. He also trained them in encircling tactics.

Historian John Laband refutes these accounts as myths. He dismisses the notion of an 80-kilometre march in a day as preposterous, claiming that despite repetition by “awestruck and admiring white observers,” the Zulu army covered “no more than 19 kilometres a day, usually only about 14 kilometres.” Additionally, the Zulus under Shaka sometimes advanced at a slower pace, recuperating for two full days in one instance, and resting for a day and two nights in another before pursuing their enemy.

Youth Support in Logistics

Boys aged six and above joined Shaka’s force as apprentice warriors (udibi), carrying rations, supplies like cooking pots and sleeping mats, and extra weapons until they joined the main ranks. The speed and lightness of these support forces were particularly useful during raids for cattle and slaves from neighbouring groups.

Age-grade Regiment System

Age-grade groupings, common in the Bantu culture of the day, and still significant in much of Africa, were responsible for various activities from camp guarding to cattle herding, to certain rituals and ceremonies. Shaka organised these grades into regiments, housing them in special military kraals, each regiment boasting unique names and insignia. This regimental system was built on existing tribal elements that could be manipulated to serve an expansionist agenda.

The intrinsic brilliance of Shaka’s tactical manoeuvres

The immense credit for the inception of the notable “bull horn” formation, rests in the hands of Shaka, according to the consensus of historians. This setup consisted of three crucial elements:

The primary force, the “chest,” engaged directly with the enemy impi, establishing a melee combat situation. Comprising seasoned warriors, the “chest” trapped the enemy impi in position.

While the enemy impi was caught by the “chest,” the “horns” tactically flanked the enemy from both sides, effectively encircling it. Working in tandem with the “chest,” they decimated the entrapped force. The warriors forming the “horns” were the swift and energetic juniors.

The “loins,” essentially a massive reserve, lay concealed behind the “chest,” their backs turned to the battle. This was intended to maintain morale and they were called upon whenever the enemy impi threatened to break free from the encirclement.

Harsh discipline under Shaka’s reign

Shaka masterfully fostered an unyielding determination in his army. He ingrained fear in his warriors of the brutal consequences awaiting them and their families if they faltered in battle or if their regiments faced defeat. The late 19th-century Zulu king, Cetshwayo kaMpande, passed down stories of Shaka’s ruthless methodologies to author H. Rider Haggard:

Upon conquering a tribe, Shaka conscripted the survivors into his army, enabling them to aid in the subjugation of others. He armed his regiments with the short stabbing Iklwa, replacing the throwing assegai that they were previously accustomed to. Those exhibiting the slightest reluctance in face-to-face combat were executed post-battle. Any regiment that was unfortunate enough to be defeated was met with the horrific scene of their wives and children beaten to death on Shaka’s orders upon returning to the headquarters, and Shaka would be waiting to complete his vengeance by brutally ending their lives. Despite occasional defeats, Shaka’s armies rarely faced annihilation and never fled from the battlefield.

Shaka’s methodology versus European technology

As the Zulu power expanded under Shaka’s leadership, it was bound to come into conflict with European hegemony. European travellers exhibited advanced technologies such as firearms and writing during their visits to Shaka’s kingdom. Shaka, however, remained sceptical. He saw no need for documenting messages, as his messengers stood under the threat of death for any inaccuracies. As for firearms, while he acknowledged their efficacy as missile weapons, he believed that during the reloading time, a gunman could be overrun by charging, spear-wielding warriors.

Shaka’s successor Dingane led the first significant clash with the expanding European Voortrekkers from the Cape, after Shaka’s demise. Initial Zulu success was due to swift surprise attacks and ambushes. However, the Voortrekkers rebounded, and at the Battle of Blood River, they dealt the Zulu a severe defeat from their fortified wagon laager. The Zulu faced the British in 1879 in their second major clash. Once again, the Zulu’s mobility and their ability to screen their forces, allowed them to close in when their adversaries were poorly deployed. Their primary victory was the Battle of Isandlwana, but they also repelled a British column at the Battle of Hlobane. They used their fast-moving regiments to cover a vast area of rugged ravines and gullies, attacking the British who were forced into a hurried and chaotic fighting retreat, back to the town of Kambula.

Creator of a ground-breaking style of warfare

Historians hold differing views on whether Shaka “changed the face of warfare” in southern Africa. Although the tactics Shaka used were not entirely new, the disciplined execution, innovative improvements, and aggressive implementation were certainly Shaka’s unique contributions.

Notwithstanding the debate, Shaka’s changes to weaponry, combined with his advanced tactics and organisational skills, were groundbreaking and led to a new era of warfare in southern Africa. His transformation of the Zulu impi into a formidable force dramatically shifted the balance of power in the region and solidified the Zulu nation’s reputation as a military powerhouse.

However, Shaka’s methods also had detractors. His insistence on face-to-face combat as the true form of bravery, while tactically effective, resulted in substantial casualties. Furthermore, his harsh discipline instilled fear but often cost the lives of many of his own soldiers. It also sowed the seeds for internal discord, which eventually led to his assassination by his half-brothers.

Death & Legacy of Shaka Zulu

Under the weight of absolute power, Shaka’s actions morphed into a blend of tyranny, cruelty, and utter eccentricity. The zenith of his control in 1827 was marred by the death of his beloved mother, Nandi. Her demise and their shared maltreatment by the Elangeni unleashed a furious torrent of rage within him. His command led to the brutal slaughter of thousands from his own tribe. As recorded by historian Donald Morris, Shaka enacted a harsh decree forbidding the planting of crops for a year of mourning, denied the use of milk – a staple in their diet, and commanded the execution of any woman found pregnant, alongside her husband. No less than 7,000 souls were put to death for perceived insensitivity towards the loss, a calamity that even claimed the lives of cows, sacrificed to let their calves experience the agony of maternal loss.

In 1828, the mighty Shaka fell to a conspiracy of assassins, struck down in the month of September when his royal dwelling was woefully unprotected. The scheme was orchestrated by his half-brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana, along with an iNduna named Mbopa. In the wake of a carefully planned distraction by Mbopa, the fatal blows were dealt. Shaka’s body was ignominiously discarded in an abandoned grain pit, hastily filled with stones and mud. Its exact location remains a mystery, though one monument stands as a reminder at a potential site.

Following Shaka’s demise, Dingane ascended to the throne, instigating a comprehensive purge against all pro-Shaka influences and chiefs that stretched over several years, solidifying his rule. The initial challenge he faced was ensuring the loyalty of Zulu warriors, which he achieved through a combination of persuasion and force. Establishing his main residence at Mgungundlovu, he went on to rule the Zulu kingdom for twelve years. His reign saw turbulent clashes with the Voortrekkers, and his other half-brother, Mpande, who seized the Zulu leadership in 1840 with Boer and British support and ruled for three decades.

Although Shaka’s rule was steeped in controversy and bloodshed, his military innovations left an indelible imprint. His successors continued to utilize his “bull horn” formation and other tactics, leading to notable victories like the Battle of Isandlwana against the British.

Shaka’s influence wasn’t confined to the battlefield. His reign saw tribes consolidating into a centralised state with formidable authority – an endeavour that cemented a unique Zulu identity still recognised today.

In contemporary culture, Shaka is revered as an innovative and unifying figure. His life and rule have inspired countless books, films, and TV series. Despite the brutality and cruelty of his reign, Shaka is venerated as one of Africa’s most exceptional military minds, a strategic visionary, and a significant force in southern Africa’s history. His enduring legacy stands as a testament to the profound influence he had on his people and the region.